Month: July 2019

What is Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological (brain-based) disorder that affects the development of social and communication abilities, as well as other aspects of behaviour, in characteristic ways. The term “autism spectrum disorder” (ASD) reflects the current view that the impact of ASD on learning and  behaviour can range from relatively mild to severe in any or all of these areas of development. For example, the pattern of social and behavioural differences that defines ASD can co-exist with all levels of intellect, although a substantial minority of people with ASD also have an intellectual disability. People with ASD face challenges in understanding and relating to other people in typical reciprocal ways. For example, although interested in social interactions and relationships someone with ASD may lack a natural grasp of some interpersonal skills, such as the ability to take another person’s point of view. Language difficulties with may make it harder for some people with ASD to express their ideas, or to understand others’ complex spoken ideas. However, even when language skills are strong, other differences in communication may affect social situations. For example, a person with ASD might have difficulty beginning a conversation or keeping one going in a fluent, two-sided manner. People with ASD also tend to have inflexible patterns of thinking and behaviour. For example, their interests and activities may be narrow, unusual, and /or more intense than those of their peers. In some individuals with ASD, unusual sensory responses may include over- and/or under-reaction to lights, sounds, touch, tastes, odours, or pain. Long-term outcomes vary widely for persons with ASD. Some individuals attain academic and vocational success, as well as independent living, especially as our communities become more accepting of social differences. Vulnerability to mental health difficulties such as anxiety and depression remains an issue for many of these otherwise able adults with ASD.

Research shows that ASD is a genetic disorder, but the specific causes are not yet known. The risk of developing ASD is increased for children born to families who already have a diagnosed family member, and more boys /men than girls / women are affected by ASD (although ASD is also less often diagnosed accurately in girls and women).  ASD is a life-long condition that is usually recognized in more severe forms by age 2 or 3 years – often at this age because the child is not yet speaking and shows limited interest in people. However, more subtle signs of ASD may not be recognized until much later, often when the child enters school and their differences from their peers become more obvious.

How is ASD diagnosed?

ASD is diagnosed by an experienced clinician (usually a clinical child psychologist or a specialist physician) based on patterns of behaviour. There is no medical test for ASD. The diagnosis is made by gathering in-depth information from parents and others about specific aspects of the individual’s development and behaviour, and by making systematic direct observations of behaviour — both what the person does that may be atypical, and doesn’t do that would be expected of a typically developing individual at that age or level of development.

With earlier recognition in young children and a better understanding of both milder and more severe forms in people of all ages, the diagnosis of ASD is becoming far more common. A recent Canadian estimate suggests that at least 1 in every 66 children is affected (Public Health Agency of Canada, 2018). The impact of ASD varies, but can be overwhelming for some families, as well as for the health, education and community services that support them. Many communities are trying to keep pace with the increasing need for ASD services.

What do we do about ASD? Can Psychology help?

Outcomes for many people with ASD are far more positive than in past decades. Advances in psychological research have improved our understanding of the fundamental developmental differences as well as the challenges faced by people with ASD. Psychologists have contributed to improved methods of recognizing, assessing, and treating ASD. Psychological assessment of children’s ability profiles – areas of relative strength and weakness – as well as evaluation of both ASD symptoms and co-occurring conditions – can guide the development of appropriate programs for children with ASD. Treatments based on psychological principles are at the leading edge of autism intervention.

Early intensive intervention based on the scientifically derived principles of learning (Applied Behaviour Analysis, or ABA) can help children with ASD when used within an individualized treatment program. Key areas for intervention usually include language / communication and social skills, daily living skills, self-regulation or coping skills, and family support. A variety of other psychological / behavioural interventions may be integrated with ABA-based techniques to meet an individual’s needs. These include incidental teaching and other strategies (such as pivotal response treatment) that capitalize on teaching opportunities in the home and community.  Structured teaching approaches emphasize organizing the person’s environment (schedules, materials and settings) to optimize learning and functioning. Peer-mediated interventions, in which other children are taught effective ways to interact with a child with ASD, can promote more positive social opportunities. For older and more able individuals with ASD, cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) strategies can be modified to help manage the anxiety that is common in ASD. CBT involves teaching individuals how to change the way they think, and to use systematic relaxation techniques, in the specific situations that provoke anxiety. Emotion regulation strategies may also be taught using modified CBT methods. Evidence –based treatment for the mental health needs of adults with ASD may be particularly hard to find. Psychologists and other mental health professionals who understand ASD can modify existing programs to customize treatment when ASD-specific services are lacking. Vocational supports such as job coaching and appropriate recreational opportunities may also be beneficial for many people with ASD.

Where can I get more information?

• Provincial / territorial autism organizations: https://autismcanada.org/about-us/board-advisors/provincial-territorial-council-3/
• National Autistic Society (UK), http://www.autism.org.uk
• Provincial associations of psychology: http://www.cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations
• Psychology Foundation of Canada: http://www.psychologyfoundation.org
• American Psychological Association (APA): http://www.apa.org/helpcenter

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial, and some municipal associations of psychology often maintain referral services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, please visit:  http://www.cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Isabel M. Smith, PhD. Dr. Smith is a registered Clinical Psychologist, Professor and Joan and Jack Craig Chair in Autism Research , Departments of Pediatrics and Psychology & Neuroscience, Dalhousie University. Dr. Smith’s work at the Autism Research Centre at the IWK Health Centre in Halifax NS is focused on children and adolescents with ASD and their families.

July 2019

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657

What is arthritis?

Arthritis is a general term that refers to diseases that involve inflammation of the joints. In all, there are more than 100 different forms of arthritis that range from mild forms such as tendonitis or bursitis to systemic chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, lupus erythematosus, gout and scleroderma.

There are currently more than 4 million Canadians living with arthritis. Many of these are autoimmune disorders in which a person’s immune system attacks joints and other organs within the body. Osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis, is not autoimmune but tends to be age and injury related.  Although once thought to be a result of “wear and tear”, osteoarthritis is now defined in terms of the body’s failure to repair our joints.

It occurs as a result of damage to cartilage and the underlying bone.  Osteoarthritis affects about 1 in 6 Canadians. No drugs are available to change the course of this disease but if it is severe enough joint replacement surgery is often done.  Prior to joint replacement surgery, a number of more conservative strategies are tried, including weight management, exercise and medications.

On the other hand, rheumatoid arthritis and other forms of autoimmune arthritis are now treated with drugs that suppress the immune system. Early treatment with these medications leads to less joint damage and disability in the long run.  Sometimes these diseases may even go into remission as a result of these treatments.

How can psychology help?

Psychological adjustment to their illness can be a significant challenge for many people with arthritis. For example, about 20% of those with rheumatoid arthritis are clinically depressed.

This high rate of depression is perhaps not surprising when one considers the impact that the disease can have on a person’s ability to participate in life and the significant pain that often accompanies joint damage.

In addition, significant flare-ups of symptoms are common and unpredictable. These changes can influence the individual’s ability to work as well as family and social relationships.

We now know that people who: feel able to control their pain and adopt active coping strategies, have a sense of self-efficacy and feel less helpless, have less pain, less depression, and less disability.

Recent evidence also suggests that psychological functioning and mood are even linked to the disease process. For example, mortality rates are higher over time for those who have both rheumatoid arthritis and depression. Stressful events, particularly interpersonal stressors can increase symptoms of arthritis.

Psychologists have played the leading role in developing treatments that improve coping, decrease pain and decrease disability in persons with arthritis. Psychologists who work with arthritis patients are trained to understand these diseases, their psychological impact and the treatments that can help them adjust better.

Cognitive-behavioural therapy and other psychological treatments that help individuals cope with their disease are an important adjunct to medical treatments. Although it is best to prevent psychological problems in the first place, psychologist can also provide treatment for the depression, anxiety, relationship problems and pain that can occur.

Are psychological interventions effective?

Dozens of randomized controlled trials, the gold standard for evaluating health care interventions, have now been reported for psychological treatments in arthritis. These studies suggest that psychological treatments are effective in helping patients cope with their disease and reduce its impact.

Psychological treatments have enjoyed sufficient success that they have become an integral element of Arthritis Self-Management (ASMP) Programs that are sponsored by the Arthritis Society across Canada and have been adopted the world over.

Where do I go for more information?

The following websites provide useful information on arthritis care:

The Arthritis Society at http://www.arthritis.ca

Medline Plus at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/arthritis.html.

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial and some municipal associations of psychology often maintain referral services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to http://www.cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Dr. Warren Nielson, London, ON.

Revised: July 2019

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657

What are eating disorders?

Eating disorders are serious illnesses comprised of physical and cognitive symptoms that can have profound consequences for an individual’s overall health and quality of life. The eating disorders include bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa, binge eating disorder, and other specified feeding and eating disorder. Eating disorders affect both men and women but are mostly diagnosed in women. They often develop during adolescence but may emerge at any point across the lifespan. Bulimia nervosa occurs in 1% to 3% and anorexia nervosa in 0.3% to 1% of Canadian women. It has also been reported that 3% of the population has binge eating disorder and impacts men and women at similar rates.  According to the Public Health Agency of Canada, approximately 3% of women will be affected by an eating disorder in their lifetime.

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by a cyclical pattern of bingeing and use of compensatory strategies. Bingeing means eating a large amount of food in a brief period and experiencing a sense of loss of control. Compensatory behaviours are strategies to get rid of unwanted calories and include self-induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, diuretics, excessive exercise, and/or fasting. Individuals with bulimia also experience shape and weight as core determinants of self-esteem.

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by significant weight loss due to restriction of food intake, an extreme fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, feelings of ‘fatness’, and experience body shape and weight as a core determinant of self-esteem. Some individuals with anorexia nervosa also experience episodes of bingeing and/or use of compensatory behaviours.

Binge eating disorder is characterized by recurrent binge eating. It is differentiated from bulimia nervosa by the absence of compensatory behaviours. Individuals with binge eating disorder commonly report dieting between binge episodes.  This dieting behaviour is markedly different from the fasting/extreme dietary restriction frequently observed in bulimia nervosa.

Other specified feeding and eating disorder (OSFED) is a final category of the eating disorders that includes individuals who do not meet the full criteria of all the aforementioned feeding and eating disorders, yet still exhibit life interfering symptoms.

Feeding disorders

Feeding disorders also impair physical health and cognitive functioning but are disturbances to eating-related behaviours. The Feeding disorders include pica, rumination disorder, and avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder.

Pica is characterized by the persistent eating of non-nutritive food and non-food substances. Onset of pica is most commonly observed in childhood, however it may also develop in adolescence and adulthood. The ingestion of non-nutritive food is not related to weight control efforts, as in anorexia nervosa.

Rumination disorder is characterized by the repeated regurgitation of food that may be re-chewed, re-swallowed, or spit out. Rumination disorder occurs at all ages (3 months through adulthood).  The behaviour is not associated with a concern of body shape or weight control efforts.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is characterized by an aversive sensory experience of eating or the effects of eating, leading to a lack of interest or avoidance of food. Significant weight loss and/or nutritional deficiency are key features of ARFID.  Unlike anorexia nervosa, in ARFID the avoidance of food is not related to body shape and weight concerns.

What psychological approaches are used to treat the eating disorders?

Eating disorder behaviours typically occur when an underlying struggle (e.g., emotional, interpersonal, or life challenge) exceeds an individual’s capacity to cope. As such, despite severe health consequences, eating disorder behaviours can serve a valued function in the individual’s life; they may enhance self-esteem, be a means of communication, address a need for control, or provide a way to avoid painful emotions. As a result, ambivalence regarding change is common. It is therefore essential that the treatment approach explores the underpinnings of the illness and is matched to the individual’s readiness for change.

Treatment may be individual or group-based and can occur in outpatient or inpatient/residential settings. Effective ED treatments address motivational issues and provide skills that support behaviour change (i.e., weight gain, cessation of bingeing and purging). For instance, these therapies help patients examine the costs and benefits of change, explore the functional role of the ED, teach distress tolerance skills, and assertiveness training. Therapies that have received the greatest empirical support include Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Interpersonal therapy (IPT), Dialectical behaviour therapy (DBT), and Family Based therapy (FBT).

In CBT the focus is on relations among thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that contribute to disordered eating. In IPT the focus is on improving relationships and social functioning in an effort to reduce problematic eating behaviours. In DBT patients learn skills in mindfulness, distress tolerance, emotion regulation, and interpersonal effectiveness. Family approaches such as FBT focus on assisting the family to work together in overcoming the eating disorder.

How effective are psychological methods of treating eating disorders?

The treatment that has received the greatest empirical support for bulimia nervosa and BED is CBT. Research investigating the best treatments for anorexia nervosa is ongoing. A comprehensive approach that addresses motivational issues, weight restoration, and underlying psychological issues is recommended. Family therapy has been shown to be a critical treatment component for younger clients.

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial and some municipal associations of psychology often maintain referral services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to https://cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by:

Dr. Josie Geller, Director of Research, Eating Disorders Program; Associate Professor, Department of Psychiatry, UBC.

Megumi Iyar, Doctoral student, Clinical psychology, University of British Columbia- Okanagan

Joanna Zelichowska, MA RCC, Eating Disorders Therapist, Vancouver BC

Lindsay Samson, Research Coordinator, Eating Disorders Program, St. Paul’s Hospital.

Revised: July 2019

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657

 

Research in industrial and organizational psychology indicates that personality traits are one class of variables that can predict job performance when the traits are job-relevant. Although other factors such as general mental ability, structured job interviews, and work samples can also predict performance, the current focus is on issues in using personality assessment in the personnel selection process. Challenges in optimizing the use of pre-employment personality testing involve a) identifying job-relevant personality traits; b) choosing a personality assessment; c) combining individual trait scores to obtain an overall applicant score; d) and managing the potential for dishonest responding. The current fact sheet examines each of these issues.

Identifying job-relevant personality traits

The process of deciding on which personality traits to use for personnel selection decisions is called a personality-oriented work analysis (see O’Neill, Goffin, & Rothstein, 2013). One new method that has shown considerable promise involves obtaining job-expert ratings of each trait’s relevance for the job. High-performing employees who have significant experience in the position are one source of potential job experts. Another source involves supervisors, as they are familiar with the job and they may provide greater objectivity. Critical, however, is that job experts have a strong understanding of personality, subtle differences between similar traits, and how traits relate to work behaviour.

The job experts rate each trait’s relevance for work performance (e.g., “how relevant is trait achievement for performing effectively on the job?”). A list of traits are identified for inclusion in the rating form by searching for potentially relevant traits from existing personality assessments or from the International Personality Item Pool (.org) website, which is operated by personality researchers. Definitions of traits can be obtained from test vendors or through inspection of the survey items, and these definitions need to be included on the trait relevance rating form. Job experts must consider the trait definitions carefully rather than relying solely on the trait names. The nature of job performance for the specific job also needs to be defined so that all job experts have a similar understanding of what constitutes effective performance in the position.

Other methods for identifying traits can be useful. For example, published research in primary studies or meta-analyses (quantitative summaries of prior studies) can provide useful indications of which traits are likely to forecast job performance. In general, research suggests that Conscientiousness is helpful in nearly every job. The usefulness of other traits, such as Risk Taking, Desire for Novelty, and Assertiveness likely depend on the specific job requirements (see Tett, Jackson, Rothstein, & Reddon, 1999).

 

Pre-employment personality assessments

Once you identify the job-relevant personality traits, you will need a reliable and valid instrument to measure personality. In this fact sheet we focus on one common method of assessment: the questionnaire. Other methods could involve the interview or behavior in problem-focused situations, but these are not addressed here. Typically, personality is measured by asking the job applicant to complete a well-researched personality assessment. Ask the test provider to point you to reliability and validity evidence detailed in the test manual, research postings on websites, and the published literature. Reliability and validity involve consistency of measurement and how well the assessment measures the targeted traits, respectively. Most personality assessments comprise a list of statements (50-350) measuring a smaller number of distinct traits (e.g., Sociability, Diligence, Cooperativeness). The respondent indicates the extent to which each statement accurately describes his or her typical behaviors, thoughts, or feelings. Comprehensive personality assessments can normally be completed within one hour, although most are shorter. These assessments provide scores on a constellation of personality traits, but only the traits from the personality-oriented work analysis should be considered in personnel selection hiring decisions.  You will need to consider the test-user qualifications required to use the particular assessment, bearing in mind that many vendors provide fee-for-training services to ensure assessments are interpreted appropriately. You should also use assessments developed specifically for pre-employment personality testing, which inquire about job-related behaviors rather than also inquiring about other areas of life. This keeps the focus on the work environment, maintains the applicant’s privacy, and offers stronger prediction (Shaffer & Postlethwaite, 2012).

Obtaining an overall score on the personality assessment

Interpreting applicant scores on many job-relevant personality traits can be challenging. Keeping subjectivity and potential bias in check involves calculating an overall assessment score for each applicant. This can be accomplished in a number of ways. One avenue is to use the average of the job-relevant trait scores. A second avenue is to take a weighted average of all the trait scores, wherein the weights consist of the job-relevance ratings from the personality-oriented work analysis. For example, imagine that the average job-relevance weighting for Risk Taking was 1.5, Achievement was .5, and Aggressiveness was -2.0. An applicant’s overall assessment score would be calculated by inserting his or her trait scores in the following weighted equation:

Overall score = 1.5*Risk Taking + .5*Achievement + -2.0*Aggressiveness

The overall personality assessment scores can then be used to assess applicants’ suitability for the job in combination with other pre-employment assessment activities (e.g., structured job interview). Note that the summed score is not a measure of a particular personality trait or other characteristic, but rather it is a score on which applicants can be rank ordered for hiring decision-making purposes (O’Neill et al., 2013). This is known as the actuarial approach, which is superior to human intuition and judgment based on a review of the candidate’s profile (see Lilienfeld, 2012). A third avenue is to derive the weights through data collection and empirical estimation. With large sample sizes and cross-validation this can be a useful alternative.

Managing the potential for dishonest responding

There is a possibility that job applicants will respond dishonestly in order to achieve a favorable outcome, such as being selected for the job. In the research literature, this is often referred to as “faking.” Faking is an important concern, as it reduces the ability of the test to accurately forecast job performance and it can contribute to hiring suboptimal applicants. This is because some people fake more than do others, so it is more complicated than simply adding a constant to each person’s score (which would not interfere with the assessment’s predictive capacity). Although there is no perfect solution to the faking problem, there are currently two promising strategies to consider (see Rothstein & Goffin, 2006).

1. Use a forced-choice assessment. Personality statements are presented in multiples, such as groups of four, and applicants are asked to choose one item that is “most like me” and one item that is “least like me”. The statements in each grouping are usually equalized for their desirability; therefore, it is more challenging to choose statements based purely on presenting a favorable image.
2. Use a faking warning. Warning the job applicant that the personality assessment may detect individuals who provide dishonest responses, and possibly that there will be consequences for dishonesty (e.g., removal from further consideration), shows promise for reducing faking. Other approaches raised more recently in the literature involve warning the applicant that his or her responses will be compared with other application information for verification (e.g., reference checks, interview, biographical application blanks), that it is not in the applicant’s best interest to respond dishonestly, or that it is important to be truthful for ethical reasons. Keep in mind that any warning given to applicants must be genuine.

Where do I go for more information?

CPA Industrial and Organizational Psychology Section (CSIOP)

Within the larger field of psychology, Industrial-Organizational (or I-O) Psychology is a specialty area based on the scientific study of behaviour in organizations. I-O psychologists work to improve organizational functioning and employee well-being through management and communication systems, hiring practices, performance appraisal, leadership development, and training programs.

I-O psychologists also provide professional consultation to organizations in order to help enhance work productivity and employee satisfaction. More information can be found on the section website at: https://cpa.ca/aboutcpa/cpasections/industrialorganizationalpsychology/

Bridge Magazine Articles

• Daniel, L. (2005). Staffing management: Use personality tests legally and effectively. Staffing Magazine, 1.
• Krell, E. (2005). Personality counts. HR Magazine, 50.

Technical Guides

• Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (2003). Principles for the validation and use of personnel selection procedures (4th ed.). SIOP Inc.
• Principles for the Validation and Use of Personnel Selection Procedures (2018). Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 11(S1), 1-97. Doi:10.1017/iop2018.195.

Books

• Christiansen, N., & Tett, R. P. (2013). Handbook of personality at work. New York: Routledge.
• For a guide to personality-oriented work analysis:

O’Neill, T. A., Goffin, R. D., & Rothstein, M. G. (2013). Personality and the need for personality-oriented work analysis (pp. 226-253).

Research Articles

• Lilienfeld, S. O. (2012). Public skepticism of psychology: why many people perceive the study of human behavior as unscientific. American Psychologist, 67, 111.
• Rothstein, M. G., & Goffin, R. D. (2006). The use of personality measures in personnel selection: What does current research support? Human Resource Management Review, 16, 155-180.
• Shaffer, J. A., & Postlethwaite, B. E. (2012). A matter of context: A meta-analytic investigation of the relative validity of contextualized and noncontextualized personality measures. Personnel Psychology, 65, 445-493.
• Tett, R. P., Jackson, D. N., Rothstein, M., & Reddon, J. R. (1999). Meta-analysis of bidirectional relations in personality-job performance research. Human Performance, 12, 1-29.

 

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Thomas A. O’Neill, PhD (Department of Psychology, University of Calgary), Deborah M. Powell, PhD (Department of Psychology, University of Guelph) and R. Blake Jelley, PhD, CHRP (School of Business, University of Prince Edward Island)

Revised: July 2019

 

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657

When do you start looking?

It is a good idea to start researching potential graduate psychology schools/programs a few years before you intend to apply. Although this may seem early, it will help you ensure that you have the necessary course requirements and research/work/volunteer experience to be a strong candidate. Application deadlines for graduate schools range from the beginning of December to the beginning of March. Be sure to give yourself enough time to complete the application packages by starting in the summer or fall of the last year of your undergraduate degree.

How do you choose a program?

One of the first decisions you will need to make is whether you want to pursue a graduate program that focuses on practice, research, or both. This decision will depend on your career goals. Different graduate programs will focus to a different degree on practice versus research.  For example, some subfields of psychology, such as cognitive and social, may have a greater emphasis on research and becoming a scientist and/or a professor. Alternatively, other psychology graduate programs have both an applied and research emphasis, including, but not limited to, those programs in clinical, counselling, school, neuropsychology, forensic, and industrial/organizational psychology.  Look on program websites and ask faculty/current/former students about the types of jobs students typically have upon graduation from the program, to help you make an informed decision. Also keep in mind that some universities offer unique programs specializing in methods, community psychology, history of psychology, etc.

Which universities have graduate programs in psychology?

The CPA website has a list of Canadian universities that offer degrees in psychology (https://cpa.ca/students/resources/canadianuniversities/ and https://cpa.ca/students/resources/Experimental).

If you are leaning towards a professional psychology degree in clinical, counselling, school, or neuropsychology, you should visit the CPA’s accreditation webpage to see which universities offer training that meets professional standards (https://cpa.ca/accreditation/CPAaccreditedprograms/). Note that not all universities or graduate programs are accredited, which could affect internship opportunities and future job prospects. Contact universities to determine their accreditation status. The Council of University Directors of Clinical Psychology website contains an information sheet specifically on applying to graduate school in clinical psychology (https://cudcp.wildapricot.org/resources/Pictures/ClinicalPsychGradSchool_Updated3.pdf).

What makes you a strong applicant?

University admission requirements vary. By starting your search in the 1^st or 2^nd year of your undergraduate degree, you can shape your experiences to be certain you have the necessary pre-requisites for the graduate programs to which you intend to apply. Looking at the admission requirements will help you determine whether your degree, undergraduate coursework, and scores on standardized tests (if applicable) meet their standards. Statistics are usually available online to let you know how competitive the admission process is and the likelihood that you will be considered a strong applicant.

Most graduate psychology programs require applicants to have strong marks (typically above 80%), particularly in psychology courses and often in research methods or statistics. Another common requirement is to have completed an undergraduate honours thesis and to have additional research experience (volunteer or work). Some universities also require the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) or other standardized tests (e.g., the Test of English as a Foreign Language [TOEFL] for Francophone students applying to Anglophone universities). Taking these tests takes preparation, and you must plan ahead in case you need to re-take the test and to ensure that the results are available before graduate school application deadlines. You can find more information about the GRE and additional resources on how to best prepare, such as how to create a study plan, here: https://www.mastersdegree.net/how-to-study-for-the-gre/

Finally, many graduate programs require reference letters. Be sure to ask people who know you and your experiences well (e.g., research advisor, professor who taught you in an upper year course), as reference letters are very important in the decision process.

How long is graduate school?

Some graduate programs end with a Master’s degree (Master of Arts – M.A.; Master of Science – M.Sc.; or Master of Education – M.Ed.), while others continue on to a Doctoral degree (Doctor of Philosophy – Ph.D.; Doctor of Psychology – Psy.D.; or Doctor of Education – Ed.D.).  At a minimum, a Master’s takes 1-2 years, whereas a Doctorate takes an additional 3-5 years to complete. Combined Master’s and Ph.D. programs also exist at some universities. Career aspirations, finances, family situation, and time commitment will influence the type of program you pursue and the length of time it takes.

What are the program requirements?

Graduate programs differ in the type of courses they offer, how many they require you to take, and how much time they expect you to dedicate to them. Opportunities provided for research, practicum placements, teaching, and mandatory internships also differ across graduate schools. Check the requirements for potential programs on their websites to ensure they match your career plans.

How do you pick an academic advisor?

The most significant relationship you will develop during your graduate studies is the one between you and your faculty supervisor. Finding and connecting with a professor that has similar research interests as you not only increase your chances of being accepted to that university, but also ensures that the time you spend in graduate school will be worthwhile and satisfying. University departmental webpages tend to provide lists of their faculty members, along with their bios, research interests, and contact information, including how to get in touch with their current graduate students. Researching and contacting possible faculty advisors to ask whether they are accepting graduate students in the upcoming year is a vital part of picking the right graduate school.

Some universities place most of the acceptance decision on the faculty member’s willingness to take on the student. Start early to make contact with possible supervisors at universities you think you might want to attend. From your first contact (likely by email), make sure you familiarize yourself with their work and come up with potential avenues of research that you would be interested in investigating. Remember, you are starting an important relationship; be polite and patient in waiting for a response.

How do you pay for graduate school?

Post-secondary education can be expensive, with tuition fees varying considerably depending on the graduate school. Graduate schools will usually report approximately how much you should expect to pay in tuition and additional fees per semester on their websites, as well as whether any internal scholarships, teaching assistantships, and research assistantships are possible. Applying to private, provincial/territorial and federal scholarships/grants can also help pay for your studies and cost of living as a graduate student. For more information on Canada’s graduate scholarships for master’s and doctoral studies, visit the websites of Canada’s tri-councils:

• Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) website: http://www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca/
• Canadian Institutes for Health Research (CIHR) website: http://www.cihr-irsc.gc.ca/
• Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council (SSHRC) website: https://www.sshrc-crsh.gc.ca/

If you want funding for your first year of graduate school, you need to submit the application the year before you intend to start (the year you are applying). Applications are typically due early in the fall semester (October/November).

You may also wish to consult with Canada’s National Student Loan Service Centre and/or see what student aid programs are available in the province/territory in which you live as per examples below:

Province /Territory	Program Link
Alberta	Alberta Student Aid
British Columbia	British Columbia Student Aid
Manitoba	Manitoba Student Aid
New Brunswick	New Brunswick Student Financial Services
Newfoundland and Labrador	Newfoundland and Labrador Student Aid
Northwest Territories	Northwest Territories Student Financial Assistance
Nova Scotia	Nova Scotia Student Assistance
Nunavut	Nunavut Student Funding
Ontario	Ontario Student Assistance Program (OSAP)
Prince Edward Island	Prince Edward Island Student Financial Services
Quebec	Quebec Student Financial Aid
Saskatchewan	Saskatchewan Student Loans
Yukon	Yukon Student Financial Assistance

A final note

When choosing the number of schools to which to apply, find a balance between quantity and quality to increase your chances of being accepted. Also be sure to get the advice of current graduate students. Good luck!

Where can you find more information?

• Visit the Student Section of CPA’s website (https://cpa.ca/students), especially its Resource page, which contains a presentation from the 2013 CPA Convention on applying to graduate school and some references (https://cpa.ca/students/resources/).
• View the CCPPP website (https://ccppp.ca/) for information on applying to graduate and internship programs.
• APA’s website: (http://www.apa.org/education/grad/index.aspx)

This fact sheet was initially prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Mr. Colin Capaldi (Carleton University) and later updated by Ms. Lyndsay Evraire (Western University).

Revised: October 2021

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Resources:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657

The psychological benefits of physical activity: An active body keeps a healthy mind

Healthy living involves many things including daily exercise, eating healthy and well-balanced meals, managing stress, and getting a good night’s rest. Physical activity is a very important part of maintaining both physical and psychological health.

Research shows that physical activity has important psychological benefits. For example, exercise can improve your mood and help you feel more confident and competent. It can help prevent and manage depression and anxiety, increase energy, reduce stress, and improve mental alertness and stamina.

Some kinds of physical activity like team sports provide a social support network which can have lots of benefits including friendships, improved mood and a better quality of life.

What type of physical activity and how much do I need to do to feel better?

There is not one specific formula of physical activity that works for everyone. Many studies have shown that including aerobic activities (i.e. activities such as running or bicycling that condition the heart and lungs to meet the body’s increased need for oxygen) and weight resistance in a physical activity routine is important for fitness.

However, the duration, frequency, and type of physical activity depend on the individual’s current level of fitness and fitness goals. It is generally suggested that individuals should do thirty minutes of moderate exercise such as brisk walking, three to five times per week.

Improvements in mental health however can come from any form of physical activity whether it is aerobic or non-aerobic in nature and whether it is done all at once or in small spurts. Examples include gardening, golf, walking the dog, playing sports, etc.

Many people say they “feel better” after regular exercise, regardless of the type of activity. We are likely to keep doing things that we enjoy, that are easy to fit into our daily routines, and that leave us feeling good.

I don’t know where to start: The importance of goal setting in physical activity

When choosing the right type of physical activity for you, it is important to set realistic goals and give yourself the time necessary to achieve the goals. Many people start out with unrealistic expectations.

For example, they want to lose weight in too short a period of time or they exercise too often and for too long periods of time. If you set a goal you cannot meet, you can end up feeling disappointed, ineffective, and you are more likely to give up. Set goals that you can easily achieve and increase the goals slowly.

Changes in health (e.g. weight loss, improved cardiovascular fitness) can take time so it is important to set behavioural or performance goals against which to measure your success.

Examples of behavioural goals might be the number of flights of stairs climbed per day or the number of walks per week. Try to make your goals specific (e.g., I will walk 2 kilometres three times per week).

If your goals are too general (e.g., I will walk more) they are difficult to measure and provide less motivation. Boredom with routine can affect motivation also so variety in your training program can help. If you are unsure of what are your appropriate fitness goals seek help from fitness and/or health professionals.

How much and when is it too much? The psychological signs of overtraining

Many of us lead very busy lives and struggle to manage all our responsibilities. It is important to make taking time for ourselves a priority and to find ways to help you do so.

We all have individual limits for what we can take on physically and mentally. If we take on too much too quickly, training exceeds the ability to adapt and overtraining can occur.

Overtraining is also known as burnout, overwork, or overstress and its signs can be quite varied and include a sudden inability to complete workouts, fatigue, trouble sleeping, loss of appetite, mood disturbances (i.e. irritability, depression, apathy/poor attitude towards training, loss of motivation to train, and/or mental exhaustion) and increased susceptibility to injury/illnesses.

The cause of overtraining is usually: not resting enough or doing too much of the same exercise. The longer the overtraining occurs the more rest is required. Therefore, early detection is very important. Your mind and body need time to recover.

If you realize that your workouts are suffering and you have lost interest and energy, it is important to take a break from your routine. Pushing through a period of overtraining instead of taking a rest can lead to significant mental health problems.

Where do I go for more information?

You can get more information about physical activity from the Public Health Agency of Canada at http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca.

They also have a physical activity guide that might be helpful to find ways to incorporate physical activity in your life. Additional information can be found on the Health Canada website at http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca.

Before engaging in physical activity, speak with your family physician to make sure you are healthy. Sometimes exercise can be dangerous to people with certain illnesses or conditions.

For other useful sport and activity related websites visit:

Canadian Heritage at http://www.pch.gc.ca.

The Canadian Wheelchair Sports Association at http://www.cwsa.ca/.

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial and some municipal associations of psychology often maintain referral services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to https://cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Associations by Dr. Hannah Marchand, University of Ottawa.

Revised: July 2019

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the Psychology Works Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Canadian Psychological Association

Tel: 613-237-2144
Toll free (in Canada): 1-888-472-0657