Year: 2025

What is Executive Functioning?

Executive functioning refers to mental skills that help you carry out day-to-day tasks. These skills include:

• Inhibition control: the ability to think before acting.
• Working memory: the ability to hold and juggle a small amount of information while performing another task.
• Cognitive flexibility: the ability to adjust your thinking or approach when situations change, so you can find new ways to solve problems or respond.

These executive functions work together to produce skills such as problem-solving, reasoning, planning, and self-control. Executive functioning also supports the ability to communicate and socialize, manage tasks, and engage in moral reasoning. Executive functions are developed throughout childhood into young adulthood. Family environment, stress, and social connections can shape the development of executive functions across stages of growth.

What Areas of My Brain Are Responsible for Executive Functioning?

Research suggests that executive functions are not localized to a single brain area. For example, executive functioning relies on several parts of the brain simultaneously to support decision-making processes. Several areas of the brain’s cortex—the outer layer involved in thinking and decision-making—support inhibition control. The prefrontal cortex, located just behind the forehead, is involved in thinking about and using information, working toward goals, and managing emotions. This brain area also plays an important role in switching between tasks and adjusting one’s thinking when a situation changes.

What Does Executive Functioning Look Like in My Daily Life?

Typical executive functioning in adults can look like:

• Being able to plan and organize tasks at work and in your personal life
• Being able to meet important deadlines
• Making decisions based on reasoning and anticipated outcomes
• Regulating emotions
• Adapting to new situations or unexpected challenges
• Managing time effectively to fulfill daily responsibilities
• Being able to balance multiple tasks or priorities

What Does Executive Functioning Look Like in My Child’s Daily Life?

Typical executive functioning in children can look like:

• Being able to focus on tasks appropriate for their age
• Being able to follow multi-step instructions
• Being able to plan and execute simple tasks, like getting ready for school
• Controlling impulses, like being able to wait for their turn in a game
• Shifting from one activity to another without extreme difficulty
• Remembering rules or routines

What Can Executive Functioning Difficulties Look Like in My Everyday Life?

Common difficulties with executive functioning in adulthood can look like:

• Inhibition Control Difficulties, for example:
  • Interrupting others in conversation
  • Struggling with impulsive behaviours, like overspending or overeating
  • Finding it challenging to focus on a task when distractors are present
  • Feeling overwhelmed by strong emotions
  • Acting or speaking before thinking, then regretting it
• Working Memory Difficulties, for example:
  • Forgetting instructions that you just read
  • Losing track of steps when following instructions, like when following a recipe
  • Struggling to plan ahead or keep appointments straight
  • Relying heavily on reminders, lists, or other people to stay organized
  • Experiencing the recurring sense that you are forgetting something important
• Cognitive Flexibility Difficulties, for example:
• Finding it hard to adapt when routines change
• Getting stuck on one way of doing something, even if it is not working
• Having difficulty switching between tasks at work or home
• Feeling overwhelmed by unexpected problems

What Can Executive Functioning Difficulties Look Like for My Child?

Common difficulties with executive functioning in children can look like:

• Inhibition Control Difficulties, for example:
  • Fidgeting excessively in class
  • Being easily distracted or being disruptive in class
  • Finding it challenging to focus on one task
  • Feeling overwhelmed by strong emotions
  • Not thinking through actions before taking them
• Working Memory Difficulties, for example:
  • Difficulty with following multi-step instructions independently
  • Losing track of belongings easily
  • Difficulty understanding complex texts/reading comprehension texts
• Cognitive Flexibility Difficulties, for example:
  • Difficulty connecting different ideas when learning a new topic in school
  • Difficulty switching between tasks
  • Difficulty solving problems creatively
  • Unwillingness to try new ways of completing a task

When Should I Be Concerned?

In both children and adults, some difficulties may be developmentally appropriate and not cause for concern. Consistent struggles that significantly interfere with daily life, learning, or work may indicate abnormal executive functioning.

What Causes Executive Functioning Difficulties?

Executive functioning can be affected by a combination of neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, autism, learning disabilities), genetic factors, and environmental factors. Various factors can affect executive functioning because it involves the coordinated development of multiple vulnerable brain areas and depends partly on how long a particular region of the brain takes to develop. For example, injury to some brain areas can affect planning and goal-directed behaviours, whereas damage to other brain areas might affect impulse control.

Genetic predispositions, such as Down syndrome, can contribute to difficulties with executive functioning. Developmental sensitivity and the timing of exposure to environmental factors—such as traumatic brain injuries, infections, or co-occurring conditions (e.g., ADHD, learning disabilities)—can also significantly affect executive functioning. The brain regions responsible for executive functions are still developing during childhood, so exposure to brain injury or infections may be especially impactful during this period. Chronic cannabis use in adolescence is also associated with poorer executive functioning in adulthood.

In adults, executive functioning can be substantially affected by traumatic brain injury, stroke, and dementia. Psychiatric disorders like ADHD, OCD, anxiety, schizophrenia, and PTSD, all affect different aspects of executive functioning. For example, individuals with OCD typically experience cognitive inflexibility, and individuals with PTSD may experience difficulties with inhibitory control and working memory. Small declines in executive functioning are typical in seniors, and hormonal changes during menopause have been linked to disruptions in executive functioning as well.

How Can Executive Functioning Difficulties Be Treated?

There is not one stand-alone option for treating difficulties with executive functioning. Instead, research shows a multifaceted approach to addressing cognitive, behavioural, and emotional regulation challenges is most effective. Key strategies and interventions for both children and adults include:

1. Therapeutic approaches: Structured interventions such as working memory training, and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) focusing on improving executive functioning processes like planning, organization, and problem-solving​​.
2. Behavioural interventions: Programs focused on managing specific behaviours (e.g., impulsivity or inattention), using reinforcement strategies to develop self-regulation and adaptive functioning.
3. Technology and tools: Utilizing tools like task organizers, time management apps, and visual reminders to support planning and time management.
4. Environment modifications: Structuring physical and social environments to reduce distractions and improve focus and organization.

How Can I Help My Child with Executive Functioning Difficulties?

It is important to share your concerns with your child’s teachers and school. Teachers can often provide insight, suggest resources, and work with you on strategies to support your child’s learning needs. You may also want to consult with the school psychologist, who can offer behavioural observations, collaborate with parents and teachers, and conduct assessments that provide deeper insight into your child’s strengths and challenges. They may also be able to recommend local services in your area.

Together, these professionals can recommend strategies and interventions tailored to your child.

Parents and teachers can help by creating consistent routines at home or in the classroom, which give children a sense of predictability. Break tasks into smaller steps and encourage children to focus on one step at a time before moving on. Visual supports, such as checklists and calendars, can also help children stay organized with homework and chores. Finally, playful activities like Freeze Dance or Simon Says give kids a fun way to practice self-control. If challenges persist, consider a formal assessment from a licensed psychologist/therapist in your area. Identifying needs early can lead to more effective support and better outcomes.

Where Can I Go for More Information?

For more information about executive functioning and useful resources, visit:

• Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario: https://www.ldao.ca/faq-items/improving-executive-function-skills/
• Centre for ADHD Awareness, Canada: https://caddac.ca/
• Brain Injury Association of Canada: https://braininjurycanada.ca/en/

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial, and some municipal associations of psychology may make available a referral list of practicing psychologists that can be searched for appropriate services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to  https://cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Michaela Ritchie, MA, PhD Candidate, University of New Brunswick Saint John and Veronica Wood, University of Guelph-Humber.

Created: October 2025

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the PSYCHOLOGY WORKS Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

Effects of Screen Use

It is well-known that screen use, and social media, are particularly interwoven into the lives of adolescents in modern society. Due to early access to smartphones, design features meant to keep youth on games and sites, and adolescents’ affinity for feedback from their peers, it is difficult to monitor their screen use and the impact on their mental health. Like younger children, teens who spend a great deal of time on screens tend to spend less time doing healthy activities that promote their development, such as socializing in-person, exercising, and reaching their academic potential. While technology provides access to helpful information, tools to get things done, and entertainment, it can also have a negative impact on teens. Here is a sample of some of the most common effects we have discovered so far:

• Social media can support connection and sense of community, particularly for youth who feel marginalized.
• Video game use can provide positive socialization and improve some cognitive skills.
• Excessive, problematic, or passive viewing such as scrolling, is associated with:
  • symptoms of depression and/or anxiety
  • reduced self-esteem
  • sedentary lifestyle and possible weight gain
  • distraction from school
  • addictive use leading to increased interference with daily functioning such as getting enough sleep, eating well, and getting to school on-time

Recommendations for Use

Here are some recommendations to help reduce the likelihood of the negative effects of screen use. Remember, screen and social media use are developmental skills, like many other tasks of adolescence, your teen will make mistakes and need support to learn and grow in this area.

• First, watch for signs of problematic or excessive use. Examples of signs include:
  • inability to put devices away or unplug
  • not engaging with others in-person and/or social isolation
  • not engaging in physical activities
  • grades dropping or other signs of academic difficulties
  • lying to get more access
  • difficulty sleeping or reduced sleep
• Because of the serious effects of social media on many young adolescents’ mental health, it is critical to monitor their use of social media – protect from harmful and hateful behaviour.
• Due to positive social support and sense of connection, do not completely remove access to devices. Instead work towards setting age-appropriate limits both to content and amount of time on screens.
• As most adolescents are students, it is important to support them in their study habits. For example, teaching them to avoid “digital multi-tasking,” such as surfing while studying by placing their phone away from their study area.

Caregiver Strategies

It can be challenging to know how best to implement screen limits with teens. Here are some parenting strategies that can help:

• Role model healthy screen behaviour: Caregiver screen use is associated with child screen use and more negative effects.
• Have whole family, regular screen-free time: Everybody Unplug!
• Develop proactive structure and limits around screen use. Start when children are young.
• Teach adolescents social media literacy include who is safe to talk to and what is appropriate to post.
• Allow screen time only after completing other necessary tasks, for example, homework, physical activity, social activities.
• As teens display appropriate behaviour, provide intermittent periods of unsupervised access – with time limits and content monitored for young adolescents. Timing and tracking devices may be of use here.
• Do not extend the screen time in response to protests – validate their feelings of sadness and disappointment, coach them through regulating their emotions if upset and stick to the limit.
• Learn and practice emotion self-regulation strategies to cope with teen protests, for example, mindfulness, self-compassionate statements, and calm breathing.
• Teens may need to be reminded that screen and device access is a privilege, not a right and as the adult you are in charge and their well-being in your top priority.
• As older teens show ability to manage their screen use and literacy, more freedom is earned. Caregivers can gradually reduce content surveillance and screen time limit monitoring.
• Even with more freedom, check-in monthly to review the rules and how things are going. Praise youth for appropriate behaviour. If signs of problematic use emerge, time and content limits should be reinstated.
• Make sure to stay calm and approachable around discussing screen use so that teens feel comfortable to come to you if a mistake is made or a rule is broken. It is most helpful if teens come to you so you can problem-solve collaboratively how to move forward in a healthy way.
• Continue to monitor for signs of cyber-bullying as well as social exclusion. These may be similar to the signs of problematic or excessive screen use described above. Additional signs may include more serious mental health symptoms such as sudden changes to participation in activities, mood, and self-care. Similar to other times when your teen needs help, get involved in an active way, seek out mental health supports if needed, and work with your teen to set-up increased safety protocols using other strategies suggested here.
• Establish a safety and support protocol so that if they get into a risky situation or an incident occurs (much like “call home if you or your driver is unsafe to drive”) they will connect with you. This way your teen is able to get the timely support they need and problem-solve for the future, rather than hiding/making things worse due to fear of having phone/social media use removed.
• No screens in the bedroom/overnight (or ensure all notifications are turned off, and overnight usage monitored). Ideally all household electronics (parents too) go to a central location for charging overnight.

Additional Resources

We know that parenting around screen time and digital media use can be hard. Technology and programs are designed to be rewarding and make it hard to stop. Using these strategies will take time and practice but are worth the effort. Below are some additional resources to help. If you are concerned about the mental health and wellbeing of anyone in your family, please seek out additional professional support.

• Canadian Pediatric Society Digital Media Resources
  • https://caringforkids.cps.ca/handouts/behaviour-and-development#digital-media
• American Pediatric Society Family Media Plan
  • https://www.healthychildren.org/english/fmp/pages/mediaplan.aspx
• Media Smarts: Canada’s Centre for Digital and Media Literacy
  • https://mediasmarts.ca/research-reports

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial, and some municipal associations of psychology may make available a referral list of practicing psychologists that can be searched for appropriate services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to  https://cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Dr. Jo Ann Unger, C. Psych. and Dr. Michelle Warren, C. Psych., University of Manitoba.

Revised: May 2025

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the PSYCHOLOGY WORKS Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

References

American Psychological Association. (2023). Health advisory on social media use in adolescence. https://www.apa.org/topics/social-media-internet/health-advisory-adolescent-social-media-use

Boak, A., Elton-Marshall, T., & Hamilton, H.A. (2022). The well-being of Ontario students: Findings from the 2021 Ontario Student Drug Use and Health Survey (OSDUHS). Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. https://www.camh.ca/-/media/files/pdf—osduhs/2021-osduhs-report-pdf.pdf

Boers, E., Afzali, M.H., Newton, N., & Conrod, P. (2019). Association of screen time and depression in adolescence. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(9), 853-859. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.1759

Boer, M., Stevens, G. W.J.M., Finkenauer, C., de Looze, M. E., & van den Eijnden, R.J.J.M. (2021). Social media use intensity, social media use problems, and mental health among adolescents: Investigating directionality and mediating processes. Computers in Human Behaviour, 116, Article 106645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106645

Kim, S., Favotto, L., Halladay, J., Wang, L., Boyle, M.H., Georgiades, K. (2020). Differential associations between passive and active forms of screen time and adolescent mood and anxiety disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(11), 1469-1478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-020-01833-9

Li, X., Vanderloo, L.M., Keown-Stoneman, C.D.G., Cost, K.T., Charach, A., Maguire, J.L., Monga, S., Crosbie, J., Burton, C., Anagnostou, E., Georgiades, S., Nicolson, R., Kelley, E., Ayub, M., Korczak, D.J., & Birken, C.S. (2021). Screen use and mental health symptoms in Canadian children and youth during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Network Open, 4(12), Article e2140875.  https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.40875

Li, X., Vanderloo, L.M., Maguire, J.L., Keown-Stoneman, C.D.G., Aglipay, M., Andersons, L.N., Cost, K.T., Charach, A., Vanderhout, S.M., & Birken, C.S. (2021). Public health preventive measures and child health behaviours during COVID-19: A cohort study. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 112, 831-842. https://doi.org/10.17269/s41997-021-00549-w

MediaSmarts. (2022). Young Canadians in a wireless world, phase IV: Life online. https://mediasmarts.ca/sites/default/files/publication-report/full/life-online-report-en-final-11-22.pdf

Ponti, M. (2023). Screen time and preschool children: Promoting health and development in a digital world. Canadian Pediatric Society Digital Health Task Force. https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/screen-time-and-preschool-children#ref14

Toombs, E., Mushquash, C.J., Mah, L., Short, K., Young, H., Cheng, C., Zhu, L., Strudwick, G., Birken, C., Hopkins, J., Korczak, D.J., Perkhun, A., & Born, K.B. (2022). Increased screen time for children and youth during the COVID-19 pandemic. COVID-19 Science Advisory Table. https://doi.org/10.47326/ocsat.2022.03.59.1.0

Effects of Screen Use

Children have access to and use technology and electronic devices more than ever before. While technology provides access to helpful information, tools to get things done, and fun entertainment, it can also have negative impacts, particularly for children. This can include replacing other activities needed for healthy growth and development and negatively impacting emotional and social well-being. Here is a sample of some of the most commonly found effects we have discovered so far:

• While live, dynamic interactions with caring adults are best for children’s development, age-appropriate educational media can also support language, reading, cognitive and social development.
• Technologies can be used to encourage and compliment physical activity and motor milestones.
• Although specific uses of digital technology can support some developmental tasks, too much or excessive use is associated with:
  • language delays, lower cognitive abilities, and delayed reading skills
  • reduced emotional self-regulation ability and behaviour problems
  • social skills deficits
  • poorer motor development
  • poor sleep when viewed before bed

Recommendations for Use

Here are some recommendations to make sure kids are not over-exposed to screens, particularly during the early years of brain development:

• Under 2 Years: No Screen Time.
• 2-5 Years: Less Than 1 Hour per Day.
• Currently there are no specific published guidelines for amount of screen use for children over 5 years of age. It is commonly recommended by clinicians that school-aged children not exceed 1 hour of recreational screen time per school day and not over 2-3 hours per weekend day, with flexibility for age and ability level.
• Some provinces have implemented a “no personal device policy” at school. While research is pending on its effectiveness, this appears to be a useful policy and likely helpful for elementary school-aged children’s overall development and well-being.
• Short periods of use broken up by whole body movement activities.
• Avoid screens after 7pm and at least 1 hour before bed.
• Prioritize educational, age-appropriate, and interactive material – no violent content for younger children. For older children, violent content should be monitored and debriefed with parents.
• Caregivers be present and engaged while young children are using digital media. This allows for active supervision as well as an opportunity to spend time with and get to know the interests of your children.
• Turn off screens when not in use. Passive screen use (e.g., TV’s on in the background) has been found to be associated with more negative effects of screen use as described above.

Caregiver Strategies

It can be challenging to know how best to implement screen limits with children. Here are some parenting strategies that can help:

• Role model healthy screen behaviour: Caregiver screen use is associated with child screen use and more negative effects for children.
• Have whole family, regular screen-free time: Everybody Unplug!
• Develop proactive structure and limits around screen use. Timing and tracking devices may be of use here. Start when children are young.
  • Plan ahead for when children will get screen time, so you do not have to decide every time they ask.
  • Understand your child’s screen activity so that you can support them in ending well. Can it be saved at certain points? Does a video length go beyond their time limit? Help them chose the screen activity and be specific around the type of media activity they will use, for example, “surfing” is harder to end and supervise.
  • Prioritize screen activities that have positive benefits, such as educational apps and video connections with loved ones.
• Allow screen time only after completing other needed tasks, for example, homework, physical activity, social activities.
• Give a time warning before ending screen time so they can prepare to end or save their activity.
• Do not extend the screen time in response to protests – validate their feelings of sadness and disappointment, coach them through regulating their emotions if upset and stick to the limit.
• Learn and practice emotion self-regulation strategies to cope with child protests, for example, mindfulness, self-compassionate statements, and calm breathing.
• Have an activity or task ready to move to after the screen time has ended and gently guide them to it.
• Reward children with praise when they end screen time at the first request.
• If children act out when screen time ends, have a natural consequence prepared which the children know about ahead of time.
• For older children who have been allowed to engage with social media, require that they include you in their “friend” groups and allow you to follow them. This can be explained as part of your job in keeping them safe.
• For older children who have been allowed to participate in group chats, they need to allow random caregiver checks on content to ensure their safety and that they are learning to engage with friends online appropriately. While children may need more teaching, restrictions, and/or supervision if mistakes are made, make sure to stay calm and approachable around these discussions. It is most helpful if your older children come to you so you can problem-solve collaboratively how to move forward in a positive way.
• Additional strategies for monitoring and managing cyber-bulling risk factors for older children can be found on the Teens and Screens Fact Sheet.

Additional Resources

We know that parenting around screen time and digital media use can be hard. Technology and programs are designed to be rewarding and make it hard to stop. Using these strategies will take time and practice but are worth the effort. Below are some additional resources to help. If you are concerned about the mental health and wellbeing of anyone in your family, please seek out additional professional support.

• Canadian Pediatric Society Digital Media Resources
  • https://caringforkids.cps.ca/handouts/behaviour-and-development#digital-media
• American Pediatric Society Family Media Plan
  • https://www.healthychildren.org/english/fmp/pages/mediaplan.aspx
• Age-Appropriate Viewing
  • https://www.cbc.ca/kids/
  • https://rating-system.fandom.com/wiki/Canadian_Home_Video_Rating_System
  • https://www.commonsensemedia.org/
• Guidelines on Physical Activity, Sedentary Behaviour and Sleep: For Children Under 5 Years of Age
  • https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/311664/9789241550536-eng.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
• Media Smarts: Canada’s Centre for Digital and Media Literacy
  • https://mediasmarts.ca/research-reports

You can consult with a registered psychologist to find out if psychological interventions might be of help to you. Provincial, territorial, and some municipal associations of psychology may make available a referral list of practicing psychologists that can be searched for appropriate services. For the names and coordinates of provincial and territorial associations of psychology, go to  https://cpa.ca/public/whatisapsychologist/PTassociations/.

This fact sheet has been prepared for the Canadian Psychological Association by Dr. Jo Ann Unger, C. Psych. and Dr. Michelle Warren, C. Psych., University of Manitoba.

Revised: May 2025

Your opinion matters! Please contact us with any questions or comments about any of the PSYCHOLOGY WORKS Fact Sheets:  factsheets@cpa.ca

References

Cost, K.T., Unternaehrer, E., Tsujimoto, K., Vanderloo, L.L., Birken, C.S., Maguire, J.L., Szatmari, P., Charach, A. (2023). Patterns of parent screen use, child screen time, and child socio-emotional problems at 5 years. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 35(7), Article e13246. https://doi.org/10.1111/jne.13246

Farah, R., Zivan, M., Niv, L., Havron, N., Hutton, J., & Horowitz-Kraus, T. (2021). High screen use by children aged 12-36 months during the first COVID-19 lockdown was associated with parental stress and screen us. Acta Pediatrica, 110(10), 2808-2809. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15979

Mantilla A., & Edwards, S. (2019). Digital technology use by and with young children: A systematic review for the statement on young children and digital technologies. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 44(2), 182-195. https://doi.org/10.1177/1836939119832744

Ponti, M. (2023). Screen time and preschool children: Promoting health and development in a digital world. Canadian Pediatric Society Digital Health Task Force. https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/screen-time-and-preschool-children#ref14

Wong, R.S., Tung, K.T.S., Rao, N., Leung, C., Hui, A.N.N., Tso, W.W.Y., Fu, K.-W.Y., Jiang, F., Zhao, J., & Ip. P. (2020). Parent technology use, parent-child interaction, child screen time, and child psychosocial problems among disadvantaged families. The Journal of Pediatrics, 226, 258-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.07.006